Hinduism is one of the world's oldest and most influential religions. It is extremely diverse. Different practices and beliefs occur in different countries, regions, and villages.

Hinduism was at one time widespread in Southeast Asia. From around 600 BC it extended from India into Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. In most of East Asia it was later obscured by Buddhism and Islam. However, it still prevails in Bali and parts of East Java, and since the late 19th century has been reintroduced to peninsular Malaysia.

History and origins

[These two brief paragraphs are full of problems; historical developments in Hinduism are very hard to neatly summarize.

It would be better to say that the roots of Hinduism are from 1500 B.C; was evident then should not really be called "Hinduism". The "simplicity" of the early rituals is a bit questionable to me; the people revolting against the priests is a highly simplistic and misleading way to present what happened around 600 B.C. A new form of Hinduism looking at meditation has a measure of truth to it, but this "form of Hinduism" has always been rather elitist, and to stop the "history and origins" at this point is very misleading indeed. The development of the "theistic cults" is the key development as these are the dominant reality in Hinduism today; "meditative" Hinduism is good propaganda, theistic devotionalism is the ground reality.]

Hinduism originated in India around 1500 BC. It was polytheistic and ritualistic. Originally all rituals were simple and performed at home. They gradually became complex and a priestly class was created and trained in order to carry out the rituals. The priests thus became the means of access to the gods.

In 600 BC the people revolted against the priests, who had become controlling. A new form of Hinduism developed, emphasizing personal meditation rather than priestly ritual. Today there are domestic shrines and rituals, local shrines and famous temples and pilgrimage sites.

Beliefs

Hindus view the cosmos as a sphere, enclosing several concentric layers of seas, continents, heavens and hells. [Is this true? Do Christians think creation was in 4004 B.C.? Some of our old books say this is our belief, but few of us believe this anymore. The mythical Hindu picture of the universe you describe does not contradict modern scientific views for most Hindus.]

Brahman is the ultimate reality; the ultimate source of all being. It is an impersonal, universal force that cannot be defined. The cosmos is an expression of Brahman. Most Hindus believe that they also are expressions of Brahman. [Where is God? Most Hindus have firm faith in one God.]

Atman is the soul or self, an inherent, eternal part of all living things, which seeks union with Brahman. [That atman "seeks" union with Brahman does not seem to me to be true in any of the very many Hindu theories about Brahman-atman; and this effort to present one definition of brahman and atman for all Hindus is unwise since there is not any one view of these complex concepts that all Hindus agree on.]

Maya is a central Hindu concept. The visible world is maya; it appears as we see it but actually conceals a different reality. [This is not a happy definition of a complex concept that again has various definitions in various schools of thought.]

Time is cyclic rather than chronological, and also degenerative, moving from a golden age through two ages of lesser goodness to the present, degenerate age. At the end of every present age, a fire or flood destroys the universe and a new golden age follows, thus continuing the cycle. ["every present age" does not communicate well; "end of every fourth age" perhaps better]

Human life is also cyclic. Hindus believe in reincarnation: the soul is reborn after physical death into the body of another human or animal.

The continuous reincarnation process is called samsara. Karma determines each new birth. It is based on our ignorance. Having forgotten that we are extensions of Brahman we have followed our desires and are thus bound to the law of karma. We reap what we sow, in the present and future lives. [That karma is based on our ignorance is not the best description. Karma is the principle of reaping what we sow, as the last sentence says.

According to the loudest schools of Hindu thought, it is ignorance that keeps us bound in karma, and "knowledge" (better "enlightenment") alone can free us. But this is a minority view among Hindus even though it is trumpeted in books and New Age info etc.]

Moksha is release from karma, death, decay, anger, lusts and maya. This release is attained though understanding and detachment from worldly pleasures. We have to understand that the self does not really exist, and that reality is the oneness of Brahman. We are "to be and not to do." [This is very inadequate if not simply false, and is contradicted by the very next point made below. Hindu history is full of the tension between renunciant householder, and the householder clearly triumphs in the Bhagavad Gita which your paper makes the central scripture. "That the 'self' does not really exist" is quite an outrageous statement; what is meant by "self"? The conflicts within Hindu psychological views are extreme and complex, mixing in western/Christian psychological constructs complicates things so much more. But to say we are "to be not to do" does not represent any serious Hindu traditional teaching, unless I am completely missing the point of what these few sentences are trying to communicate.]

This enlightenment can be reached in three ways: action and ritual (the worldly way) [To call this the worldly way is odd and not advisable.] knowledge and meditation (the way of renunciation) devotion (a middle way) [This is perhaps gleaned from a Buddhist study of Hinduism? The way of devotion is not a middle way in Hindu understandings; it is the only way for most Hindus.] Devotion is sometimes interpreted as commitment to God, who is approachable, offering salvation as a gift, not reward for effort. It is also sometimes interpreted as devotion to a deity or to something human such as family or one's master. [Devotion IS commitment to god, but under god we must be devoted to parents and elders as well, with a lesser devotion. Most devotionalism is centered on grace; more often antinomian grace (sometimes extremely so) than incipient legalism.]

The sacred cow

>From ancient times, the cow has symbolized the universe and its gifts to humanity. Cows are givers of life, food, sacrifice and worship. They are not eaten and the majority of Hindus are vegetarian. However the milk, urine and dung are used for food, fuel and ritual. Krishna is often depicted as a cowherd. [The majority of Hindus probably are NOT vegetarian; those who write about Hinduism think Hindus SHOULD be vegetarian, so they do not mention how widespread meat consumption is and always has been.]

Scriptures

Vedas: These are the oldest Hindu scriptures. They record the religion of the Aryan peoples who settled in India around 1500 BC. They were nomads, probably from central Asia or the Baltic. Their religion included sacrifice to gods representing the forces of nature. Veda means "knowledge." There are four Vedas, of which the oldest is the Rig Veda. Each is divided into four: mantras (verses or hymns sung during rituals), brahmanas (explanations of the mantras), aranyakas (reflection on the meaning of the mantras) and upanishads. Upanishads are philosophical, poetic, mystic meditations on the nature of existence, atman, Brahman and the universe. [That the Vedas record the religion of the Aryan people is a questionable description. They are a collection of poems and songs on a wide range of topics, most being addressed to/about higher powers and gods. "There are four Vedas" and what follows is a bit confusing since "Veda" has two referrents. It seems to me best to refer to what is outlined above as the Vedic corpus. The four mantra collections mentioned above (the samhitas) are the four Vedas. Each of these has Brahmanas and aranyakas/Upanishads (many prefer a three fold rather than fourfold division, counting aranyakas and Upanishads as one). This whole corpus of literature is the Veda(s).]

Two epic tales

Ramayana

This is 24,000 couplets on the life of Rama, a good king and an incarnation of the god Vishnu. In the Ramayana he is depicted as an Odysseus figure. A Ramayana dance is still performed in Cambodia and Indonesia.

The Mahabharata

The story of the Aryan clans, told in 100,000 verses composed over 800 years. This includes the devotional Bhagavad Gita or "Song of the Blessed Lord," the most popular Hindu scripture.

Gods and Goddesses

There are thousands of Hindu deities, but worship varies regionally.

Most Hindus believe in a triad of gods; manifestations of Brahman: Brahma (creator), Shiva (destroyer) and Vishnu (preserver). However, some believe only in one god, some believe in many gods, some in no god and some several manifestations of one god. [The triad of Brahma Vishnu and Shiva is very overplayed; maybe this is stronger in southeast Asia than in India.]

Hinduism in Indonesia

Hinduism spread to Indonesia in the first century AD. Islam superseded it in the 13th century, except in Bali, which is now the largest Hindu regionoutside India. Hinduism is also still practiced in much of Islamic East

Java, and most Indonesian art is Hindu rather than Islamic.

Balinese Hinduism is characterized by pantheism and includes elements of Polynesian religions. Most gods are identified with nature. Brahma is associated with fire and volcanoes, as well as creation as in Indian Hinduism. The most powerful gods are those identified with mountains, lakes and the sea. Other gods include: Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa: the supreme unknowable god. Ancestors: these are the most approachable. The rites of the living enable the souls of the ancestors to reach heaven. The ritual is repaid by blessing from the ancestors and sometimes guidance via a medium. Ancient kings: also revered as important deities. Dewi Sri: the rice goddess. Shrines can be seen in rice fields, and daily food offerings are left to her. Saraswati: a female consort of Brahma and the goddess of wisdom, knowledge and the arts. Hinduism in Malaysia Around nine percent of the population of Malaysia are Tamil Indians, of whom nearly 90 percent are practising Hindus.

Hinduism spread to Malaysia very early, and was important until Islam arrived in the 15th century. Traces remain in the Malay language, literature and art.

Indian settlers came to Malaysia from Tamil Nadu in the late 19th and early 20th centuries: labourers to work on rubber plantations and a few English-educated Indians, forerunners of today's professional middle class. There is also a minority from Northern India.

Malaysian Hinduism is diverse, with large urban temples dedicated to specific deities, and smaller temples on estates. The estate temples generally follow the tradition of the Indian region from which the workers originate. Many people follow the Shaivite tradition (worship of Shiva), of Southern India. Folk Hinduism is most common, including spiritualism, animal sacrifice and worship of local gods. [Saivism is a devotionalist grace-based theology, and in so far as Hindus know their theology this should be understood. Most of the paper above militates against understanding devotional Saivism and presents advaitic philosophy which few Hindus care much about, although it has influenced many modern Hindus through the mediation of Vivekananda.]

Since the Second World War a revival of Hinduism has occurred among Indian Malaysians, with the foundation of organizations and councils to bring unity or to promote reform.

Other points

Sin is caused by ignorance which produces bad karma [Advaita would say sin mostly IS ignorance; most Hindus accept sin as a reality and various means to find a measure of atonement (karma is not iron-clad, otherwise no one would bother taking holy baths in sacred rivers).]

God is an impersonal force, or one of many gods, and Jesus is also likely to be identified as one of many deities [Most Hindus affirm a single supreme deity; certainly all good Saivites do.]

There are many paths to God

To be "born again" implies reincarnation

Pray for Christian influence among the Malaysia Tamils: visa restrictions limit missionary work

Possibilities of outreach from Indonesia and Malaysian churches

Political stability and greater religious tolerance A resurgence of Hinduistic "patriotism" and "nationalism" is occurring in India, Indonesia and Malaysia. It is less militant in East Asia but nonetheless hinders Christian witness

The Balinese church, which is very new and small

A Triad of Gods

Brahma Creator

Depicted with four arms (holding four vedas) and four faces (the four points of the compass). Shiva Destroyer Deity in whom all opposites meet. Embodiment of cosmic energy and symbol of male fertility. [Saivites see Shiva as creator, preserver and destroyer, all in all, and would be offended by this heretical theology that puts Brahma and Vishnu on a par with Shiva.]

Vishnu

Preserver

In charge of human fate and symbol of divine love. [Most Hindus are Vaisnavites and understand that Vishnu created the world and is the only saviour (through his avataras), as well as being the consumator of all things.]

Krishna

Most popular incarnation (avatar) of Vishnu.